Real analysis by hl royden pdf

 Real analysis by hl royden pdf,

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Real analysis is the area of mathematics dealing with real numbers and the analytic properties of real-valued functions and sequences. In this course we shall develop concepts such as convergence, continuity, completeness, compactness and convexity in the settings of real numbers, Euclidean spaces, and more general metric spaces.

Real analysis is part of the foundation for further study in mathematics as well as graduate studies in economics. A considerable part of economic theory is difficult to follow without a strong background in real analysis. For example, the concepts of compactness and convexity play an important role in optimisation theory and thus in microeconomics.  

The theorems of real analysis rely on the properties of the real number system, which must be established. The real number system consists of an uncountable set R together with two binary operations denoted + and ⋅, and an order denoted <. The operations make the real numbers a field, and, along with the order, an ordered field. The real number system is the unique complete ordered field, in the sense that any other complete ordered field is isomorphic to it. Intuitively, completeness means that there are no 'gaps' in the real numbers. This property distinguishes the real numbers from other ordered fields (e.g., the rational numbers Q) and is critical to the proof of several key properties of functions of the real numbers.

Roughly speaking, a limit is the value that a function or a sequence "approaches" as the input or index approaches some value.(when addressing the behavior of a function or sequence as the variable increases or decreases without bound.) The idea of a limit is fundamental to calculus (and mathematical analysis in general) and its formal definition is used in turn to define notions like continuity, derivatives, and integrals. (In fact, the study of limiting behavior has been used as a characteristic that distinguishes calculus and mathematical analysis from other branches of mathematics.)

The concept of limit was informally introduced for functions by Newton and Leibniz, at the end of the 17th century, for building infinitesimal calculus. For sequences, the concept was introduced by Cauchy, and made rigorous, at the end of the 19th century by Bolzano and Weierstrass, who gave the modern ε-δ definition, which follows

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